Mechanical processing of soil so that it is in the proper physical condition for planting is usually referred to as tilling; adding nutrients and trace elements is called fertilizing. Both processes are important in agricultural operations.
Tillage is the manipulation of the soil into a desired condition by mechanical means; tools are employed to achieve some desired effect (such as pulverization, cutting, or movement). Soil is tilled to change its structure, to kill weeds, and to manage crop residues. Soil-structure modification is often necessary to facilitate the intake, storage, and transmission of water and to provide a good environment for seeds and roots. Elimination of weeds is important, because they compete for water, nutrients, and light. Crop residues on the surface must be managed in order to provide conditions suitable for seeding and cultivating a crop.
Generally speaking, if the size of the soil aggregates or particles is satisfactory, preparation of the seed-bed will consist only of removing weeds and the management of residues. Unfortunately, the practices associated with planting, cultivating, and harvesting usually cause destruction of soil structure. This leaves preparation of the seed-bed as the best opportunity to create desirable structure, in which large and stable pores extend from the soil surface to the water table or drains, ensuring rapid infiltration and drainage of excess or free water and promoting aeration of the subsoil. When these large pores are interspersed with small ones, the soil will retain and store moisture also.
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Agis III was a Spartan king from 338–331 who rebelled unsuccessfully against Alexander the Great. He died in 331 BC..
Agitprop, abbreviated from Russian agitatsiya propaganda (agitation propaganda), is a political strategy in which the techniques of agitation and propaganda ….
Aglauros, in Greek mythology, is the eldest daughter of the Athenian king Cecrops. Aglauros died with her sisters by leaping in fear ….
Agnano is a volcanic crater in Napoli provincia, Campania regione, southern Italy. It is situated in the Campi Flegrei ….
Agnathan are any of the class Agnatha of primitive, jawless fishes that includes the lampreys and hagfishes (order Cyclostomata), as well …
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Saint Agnes flourished in the 4th century in Rome,Italy. She was virgin and patron saint of girls, who is one of the most celebrated Roman martyrs. …
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Agni (Sanskrit: “Fire”) is a fire-god of the Hindus, second only to Indra in the Vedic mythology of ancient India. He is equally the fire ..
Shiv Narayan Agnihotri was born in 1850 nearKānpur inIndia and died in 1923 inLahore [now inPakistan]. He was the Hindu founder of an atheistic …..
Theodore W. Schultz’s Transforming Traditional Agriculture (1964, reprinted 1983), has become a classic on the complex problems involved in the modernization of agriculture. The interrelationships between agriculture and the rest of the economy are detailed in Robert D. Stevens and Cathy L. Jabara, Agricultural Development Principles (1988), a beginning text;and Isaac Arnon, Modernization of Agriculture in Developing Countries: Resources, Potentials, and Problems, 2nd ed. (1987). Ceres (bimonthly), published by the FAO, addresses agriculture and food production in developing countries. R. Albert Berry and William R. Cline, Agrarian Structure and Productivity in Developing Countries (1979), establishes a correlation between small farm size and agricultural productivity in developing countries. D. Gale Johnson, World Agriculture in Disarray, 2nd ed. (1991), analyzes the relationship between domestic agricultural policies and international trade. Various farming systems are examined by B.L. Turner II and Stephen B. Brush (eds.), Comparative Farming Systems (1987), case studies of 12 major world systems; Zhores A. Medvedev, Soviet Agriculture (1987), a historical treatment; and Karl-Eugen Wädekin (ed.), Communist Agriculture: Farming in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe (1990), a look at the Communist approach before its abandonment.
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If they were free to choose, most farm families would want to own the land they farm. Wherever collectivization of private farmers has been carried out, it has required the use of force or the threat of force. But if family farming is to be viable, it must function efficiently, which means that farmers must have access to adequate sources of credit; must be able to obtain fertilizers, machinery, and other equipment; and must be able to market their produce easily. Laws and institutions must be sufficiently flexible to permit the average size of farms to increase as economic growth occurs.
Collective farming did not fulfill the hopes of its early advocates. In the Soviet Union the collective farm was used by Stalin as a means of exploiting the rural population in order to finance the expansion of industrialization. In the post-Stalin era the incomes of collective farm members increased, and it was believed that many remaining difficulties could be eliminated if the farms were given greater freedom in running their affairs. Nothing in the concept of the collective farm required the imposition of delivery quotas, centralized control of farm investment, or a particular organization of farm labour. Another weakness of collective farms was the failure to provide adequate incentives for individual members. Because of the difficulties involved in rewarding members for their individual work on the common land, the household plots of the members all too often tended to flourish at the expense of the collective.
There is no ideal form of organization that fits all farming. Under some circumstances the ownership of land may absorb so much capital that other investments, such as machinery and livestock, are neglected. Land rental may be a better alternative for many families, especially those with limited capital. The Israeli kibbutz has made it possible for many people with little or no agricultural experience to learn farming techniques quickly and efficiently. The most important consideration is whether the other institutions—economic, political, and social—are adequate to provide farmers with a wide range of resources and alternatives.
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Acanthus in architecture and decorative arts, is a stylized ornamental motif based on a characteristic Mediterranean plant with jagged leaves, Acanthus spinosus. It was first used by the Greeks in the 5th century BC on temple roof ornaments, on wall friezes, and on the capital of the Corinthian column. One of the best examples of its use in the Corinthian order is the Erechtheum on the Athenian Acropolis. Later, the Romans used the motif in their Composite order, in which the capital of the column is a three-dimensional combination of spirals resembling rams’ horns and full-bodied acanthus leaves. The acanthus leaf has been a popular motif in carved furniture decoration since the Renaissance.
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